Pointer Arithmetic

Overview

int *ip

• What would the (sensible) meaning of ip + 1 be?
  • incrementing by 1 byte?
  • incrementing by 4 (the size of an integer) bytes?
• When would ip + 1 make sense? ip -1?

The Details — Scaled Pointer Arithmetic

• char *cp: cp + 1 -> add 1 byte to cp
• int *ip: ip + 1 -> add 4 bytes to ip
• double *dp:dp + 1 -> add 8 bytes to dp

Valid Arithmetic Operations on Pointers

• pointer + integer — moves pointer upwards by (scaled) value of integer
  • ip + 1, ip += 1, ip++
• pointer - integer — moves pointer downwards by (scaled) value of integer
  • ip - 1, ip -= 1, ip--
• (in)equality of pointers — two pointers (not) pointing to the same location
  • ip1 == ip2
  • ip1 != ip2
• pointer - pointer — determines (scaled) distance between pointers
  • ip1 - ip2
  • When would this be meaningful?
• pointer comparison — <, <=, etc
  • ip1 < ip2 — ip1 has a lower address in memory than ip2
  • Again, when is this meaningful?

Arrays

Declaration and Initialization

• Declared with a syntax similar to Java, except they are array objects, not merely reference variables; i.e., space for the array is alocated

  int arr[10];
  		

  • Declared as a local variable, they are allocated on the stack, like any other variable
• Arrays must be declared with a size

  int nums[10];
  double averages[14];
  string names[100]; 
  		

  • Note the placement of the subscript (after the variable name)
• As with Java, they are 0-based
• An array may be initializes with an initalization list:

  			int a[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
  			int b[] = {1, 2, 3};
  		

  • If the size is omitted, the number of elements in the initialization list is used to determine the size of the array
  • there are specific rules for what happens is the explicit size does not match the number of elements in the intialization list

The Subscript Operator — The Array as Pointer

int a[10];

• the identifier a (i.e., the name of the array) is viewed as a pointer to the first element of the array
• the notation a[i] refers to the elements i elements from the beginning of the array.
• a[i] ≡ *(a + i)
  • i.e., subscripting in C++ is defined via the corresponding pointer expression; subscript is sometimes called a 'secondary notation'

Passing an Array to a Function

• The contiguous area of the array is not what is passed, rather its address.
  • This makes sense, the array is not the full extant of storage; but a pointer to the first element
  • This has several major ramifications
    • while the address of the array is usually passed by-value (and thus won't change in the function), the content are being 'passed' by indirection and thus, changes made to the elements of the array persist upon leaving the function
    • In the function header, the array is declared without a size (the elements are not passed, merely the starting address)

      bool contains(int arr[], int n, int val);
      						

      • This mean the function can handle any size array (of the proper type, of course)
    • Array parameters can also be declared as pointers (which is what they are)

      bool contains(int *arr, int n, int val);
      						

• Unless the array contains some sort of trailer/sentinel value, the number of elements in the array is passed as a separate argument

  bool contains(int arr[], int n, int val);
  		

  • Compelling reason to introduce an vector/array class.
• Within the function, the array is processed as usual (usually in conjunction with the associated length parameter):

  bool contains(int arr[], int n, int val) {
  	for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
  		if (arr[i] == val) return true;
  	return false;
  }
  

A Closer Look at Pointers and Arrays

• Given the declarations

  		int a[10], *ip;
  		

  what does ip = &a[0] mean?
  • ip is now pointing to the first element of a
• What about

  ip = &a[0];
  for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
  	cout << *ip;
  	ip++;
  }
  		

  • We position ip at the beginning of the array; the loop then prints the contents of the location pointed at by ip, and then moves ip to the next element. This is done n times (once for each element of the array)
• Finally, how about

  for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
  	cout << *(a+i);
  		

  • Same result — each time through the loop the contents of the location i elements away from the beginning of the array is printed

Pointers vs. Arrays

• Declaring an array, however, is not the same as declaring a pointer to the corresponding element type

  int *ip;
  		

  • Only a pointer (typically 4 or 8 bytes) is allocated)
  • Not pointing at anything yet
  • Can assign to ip

  int a[10]
  		

  • Space is allocated for 10 integers
    • No space is allocated for the pointer — it's a constant (almost a liter) and the compiler keeps track of the address of the beginning of the array and associates it with a
  • a a points to the first element
  • cannot assign to a (no Lvalue).
    • a is not a pointer variable but rather a fixed name for the location of the first element
    • When you code the following:

      int a[] = {1, 2, 3, 4};
      						

      you are providing initial values to the elements of the array; you are not assigning an array to a

int *ip, a[10]

Recursion and Arrays

int a[10]

• The recursive definition if an array (an array is either empty , or an element followed by an array) is exposed and accessible for use in C++

  void print(int a[], int n) {
  	if (n == 0) return;
  	cout << a[0] << ' ';
  	print(a+1, n-1);
  		

  • Note no need to copy the remaining elements to a new array, or use subarrays

The sizeof Operator

• The sizeof operator is a compile-time value; i.e., the compiler replaces the sizeof operation with the number of bytes allocated to the operand.

  cout << sizeof(int);	
  		

• The operand to sizeof can be a type, variable, or expression.
  • There are rules as to when the operands needs to be enclosed in ()'s. In general, simply use the parens.
• sizeof was more hevily used in C, where dynamic allocation of memory was a function whose argument was the number of bytes to allocate
  • In C++, new takes care of that calculation, using the type that is specified
• sizeof for an array returns the number of bytes allocated to the array
  • This allowed the code:

    sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0])
    				

    which evaluated to the number of elements
  • This only works within the function/block the array was declared in
    • It only works for local or global arrays, whose size was known at compile time
    • for a dynamically allocated array, there's a po inter to it (whose size is that of a pointer), and this does not work.
    • It also doesn't work if the array is passed as an argument, the corresponding parameter is not an array (it's a pointer), and using it as the operand to sizeof produces the number of bytes a pointer takes up on the machine.
    • All of this becomes moot, as one should be using vector

Dynamic Memory

Overview

• Variable names are static in the sense that they must be chosen during program editing
  • New variable names cannot be introduced after editing, for example, at run-time
• One of the uses of pointers is that they allow us to keep track of memory that we will request at runtime
  • The result of our request will be the address of the new memory, which we can then store in a pointer.
• With this ability, we can allocate an arbitrary amount of memory (up to the limit of the machine's memory size) during execution, allowing for much more flexibility than previously.
  • We are also not restricted to the fixed (i.e., static) number of variable names specified in the program source. As long as we can find somewhere to save (and subsequently retrieve) all the pointers to the dynamically allocated locations, we can have as many as we want (where we store those pointers and how we organize and manipulate them is a major portion of the topics covered in a data structures course).
    • This is also the basic idea behind linked representations (such as linked lists) … each node keeps track of the next, through its next field

The new Operator

• C++ provides the programmer with the ability to allocate additional memory on an as-need basis during runtime.
• Such memory is known as dynamically allocated memory
  • In some languages, such memory is called programmer-controlled memory as its allocation/ deallocation is completely under programmer control.
• Additional memory can be obtained during execution using the new operator, which accepts a type (and the number of elements if an array is being allocated), and returns a pointer to the newly allocated storage:

  int *ip;
  ip = new int;		// Allocates space for a new integer and returns the address
  double *dp = new double[100]; 	// Allocates space for 100 doubles and returns the address of the first
  		

  • Note how C++ allows scalars to be created via dynamic memory (unlike Java (where primitives are never allocated using new).

The delete Operator

• Memory allocated using the new operator is completely under the programmer's control,; and thus it is up to the programmer to decide when the memory should be freed.
• this is achieved using the delete operator which accepts a pointer to the memory to be freed:

  delete ip;
  delete [] dp;
  		

  • Note: if an array was allocated (using the [] notation) as seen above for dp, a corresponding notation should be used when using the delete operator on that memory.

Dynamically-Allocated Arrays

• Arrays whose size is unknown until runtime can be created using dynamic memory
• Rather than using the familiar array declaration (which requires a size), a pointer must be used

  int *arr;
  		

• The pointer is then assigned the result returned from a call to the new operator:

  int n;
  cin >> n;
  
  arr = new int[n];
  		

• once allocated, use of the array is exactly as if it were declared as usual
  • This is one more consequence of arrays being treated as pointers

Aliases

• Just as the term alias in everyday English means a alternate name for something, in C++, two pointers are aliases if they contain the same address (i.e., if they point to the same location).
• Changes through either pointer affects the value of the location (regardles of which pointer is used to retrieve it).
• Aliases can also occur with a varu=iable and a pointer assigned the addres of that variable:

  			int x = 12;
  			int *ip = &x;		// *ip is now an alias of x
  		

• Aliases can prove problematic in that changes through one affect the other (thus a change in one part of the program can affectt another part without its knowledge).

Memory Leaks (Garbage)

int *ip = new int[100];
ip = new int[10];

• Preventing the occurrence of garbage is one of the primary purposes of having a destructor in a class.
• Assigning a pointer away from a storage location does not automatically create garbage as long as there is an alias (i.e., another pointer) to the location.

Dangling References/Pointers

int *ip = new int[10];
...
delete [] ip;
...
ip[3] = 1;	// uh, oh... ip's storage was freed; we have no business using ip

• Following a dangling reference is exteremely dangerous, the memory may have been reallocated and reassigned new values. In the above example, assigning 1 to ip[3] may very well be corrupting data being used in another portion of the program (that obtained that storage in a subsequent call to new).
• What we need is either:
  • to be very careful not to access storage through a pointer whose storage has been deleted (and has not been assigned new storage after that), or
  • have some value that can be assigned to the pointer AFTER the storage has been deleted and which indicates the pointer is currently unused (see next section).

NULL, nullptr

• This value is assigned to a pointer to represent that the pointer is current not pointing at anything
• The program can test the value of a pointer for NULL to determine whether to 'follow' the pointer.
• NULL is actually defined as being 0; there is a difference of opinion whether to use NULL or 0.
  • The fact that it is actually the integer value 0 created problems when used in the context of pointers
• C++ 11 introduced the nullptr keyword to be used in place of NULL
  • It is of a pointer type that is compatible with all pointer types and only pointer types.

References

• A reference is an alias to an object.
• References are declared using &, and are initialized by supplying the original name for the object.

  int i = 12;
  int &ir = i;
  		

• A reference is permanent — once assigned a reference cannot be reassigned.
• Access to the value is performed transparently

  ir++;		// Adds 1 to i
  		

  • In essence, reference is a pointer without all the notation and machinery
  • This transparency means that the reference loses its individual identity (i.e., there's no way to manipulate the reference itself after it's created; all 'references' to the reference refer to what it is 'pointing' to.
• Primary uses of a reference are to:
  • permit call- and return-by-reference (see below)
  • permit clean operator overloading

A Pattern for a Growable Array

• The trick to implementing a growable array is to use a pointer rather than an array (which must be delcared with a fixed size).
  • Using a pointer allows you to call new during runtime, when additional memory is needed.
  • Furthemore, the level of indirection provided by the pointer allows access to the memeory though the pointer. I.e., even if the pointer is re-assigned to refer to a larger chunk of mememory, you are still going through the same pointer.
• The basic idea is to maintain two separate size variables, and a pointer to the current allocation representing the array:
  • A physical size, usually called the capacity. This corresponds to the number of elements allocated.
  • a logical size, usually simply called the size representing the number of elements actually assigned values by the calling application.
    • The size is always less than or equal to the capacity. A size of 0 means the array is effectively empty; if the size equals the capacity, the array is full.
• Inserting elements into the array incresaes the size; when the size equals the capacity, the array must be resized. This involves:
  • Increasing the capacity by some value (say, 2 times the current capacity)
  • Allocating new storage whose size is that of the new capacity
  • Copying the elements from the old storage to the new storage
  • Freeing the old storage
  • Assigning the pointer to the new storage to the array's pointer
• Here is a function that ensures there is room for at least one more element in the array.

  // checkCapacity accepts an array pointer, and a size and capacity; if necessary, it resizes the array 
  
  void checkCapacity(int *&arr, int size, int &capacity) {
  	if (size == capacity) {		// full, need to grow/reallocate
  		capacity *= 2;
  		int *tmp = new int[capacity];
  		for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
  			tmp[i] = arr[i];
  		delete [] arr;
  		arr = tmp;
  	}
  }
  		

  • Notice the type of the arr parm — it's declared as a reference since the pointer may change (if the array needs to be resized).
    • This is an example of a pointer being passed because it's a pointer (and not to simulate by-reference by passing 'by-pointer').
  • Here is sample usage:

    const int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 10;
    int capacity = DEFAULT_CAPACITY, size = 0;
    int arr = new int[CAPACITY];
    …
    
    // when we now want to add an element to the array
    
    checkCapacity(arr, size, capacity);
    
    // when we come back, we're guaranteed there's sufficient room (for one more element)
    		

class vector {
public:
	vector(int capacity=100) : capacity(capacity), size(0), arr(new int[capacity]) {}
	…
private:
	void check_Capacity() {
		if (size == capacity) {		// full, need to grow/reallocate
			capacity *= 2;
			int *tmp = new int[capacity];
			for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
				tmp[i] = arr[i];
			delete [] arr;
			arr = tmp;
		}
	}
	
	int *arr;
	int size, capacity;
};